Abstract : Qubit dephasing is governed by low-frequency noise in the bias parameters that control the energy separation between the qubit states. It has been shown that dephasing in phase and flux qubits is dominated by an excess low frequency magnetic flux noise with a 1/f power spectrum and magnitude at 1 Hz of order 1 microPhi0/sqrt(Hz). Recent experiments by McDermott et al. provide clear evidence for the existence of unpaired magnetic states on the surfaces of superconducting thin film devices; it is now believed that fluctuations of these surface spin states are the source of the ubiquitous 1/f flux noise. However, the microscopic mechanism that drives fluctuations of these spins is not understood; moreover, there is no clear path to reducing the flux noise magnitude. This program is devoted to a systematic investigation of magnetic surface defects in SQUIDs and phase qubits. Measurements of surface spin susceptibility and susceptibility noise will yield valuable clues about the microscopic nature of the magnetic fluctuators, and shed light on interactions between defects. The role of qubit loop geometry on flux noise magnitude and dephasing will be explored in detail. The experiments will guide theoretical efforts to develop improved models for flux noise.
For over three decades, the presence of magnetic flux noise with a power spectral density scaling roughly as
SPhi(f)propto1/falpha, where
alphalesssim1, has been known to limit the low-frequency performance of dc superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). In recent years, experiments indicate that this same noise persists to frequencies up to 1~GHz and is a dominant source of dephasing in flux-sensitive superconducting quantum bits (qubits). Thus, the reduction of flux noise presents a major hurdle towards the successful realization of scalable quantum computers that are based on flux-based qubits. In this thesis, we present experimental measurements, theoretical analyses, and numerical simulations that support a more detailed understanding of both the microscopic and macroscopic properties of flux noise.Our experimental work begins with flux noise measurements of a large number of SQUIDs in the temperature range from 0.1~K to 4~K. We report on measurements of ten SQUIDs with systematically varied geometries and show that
alpha increases as the temperature is lowered; in so doing, each spectrum pivots about a nearly constant frequency. The mean square flux noise, inferred by integrating the power spectra, grows rapidly with temperature and at a given temperature is approximately independent of the outer dimension of a given SQUID washer. We show that these results are incompatible with a model based on the random reversal of independent, spins that are located at the surface of the SQUID washer.In the course of our flux noise measurements, we became aware of a spurious contribution to low-frequency critical current noise in Josephson junctions---normally attributed to charge trapping in the barrier---arising from temperature instabilities inherent in cryogenic systems. These temperature fluctuations modify the critical current via its temperature dependence. By computing cross-correlations between measured temperature and critical current noise in Al-AlOx-Al junctions, we show that, despite excellent temperature stability, temperature fluctuations induce observable critical current fluctuations. Particularly, because
1/f critical current noise has decreased with improved fabrication techniques in recent years, it is important to understand and eliminate this additional noise source.Next, we introduce a numerical method of calculating the mean square flux noise
Phisq from independently fluctuating spins on the surface of thin-film loops of arbitrary geometry. By reciprocity,
Phisq is proportional to
langleBbf(rbf)2rangle, where
Bbf(rbf) is the magnetic field generated by a circulating current around the loop and
rbf varies over the loop surface. By discretizing the loop nonuniformly, we efficiently and accurately compute the current distribution and resulting magnetic field, which may vary rapidly across the loop. We use this method to compute
Phisq in a number of scenarios in which we systematically vary physical parameters of the loop. We compare our simulations to an earlier analytic result predicting that
PhisqproptoR/W in the limit where the loop radius
R is much greater than the linewidth
W. We further show that the previously neglected contribution of edge spins to
Phisq is significant---even dominant---in narrow-linewidth loops.To calculate theoretical dephasing rates in qubits, we consider flux noise with a spectral density
SPhi(f)=A2/(f/1 hboxHz)alpha, where
A is of the order of 1~
muPhi0,hboxHz−1/2 and
0.6leqalphaleq1.2;
Phi0 is the flux quantum. For a qubit with an energy level splitting linearly coupled to the applied flux, our calculations of the dependence of the pure dephasing time
tauphi of Ramsey and echo pulse sequences on
alpha for fixed
A show that
tauphi decreases rapidly as
alpha is reduced. We find that
tauphi is relatively insensitive to the noise bandwidth,
f1leqfleqf2, for all
alpha provided the ultraviolet cutoff frequency
f2>1/tauphi. We calculate the ratio
tauphi,E/tauphi,R of the echo (
E) and Ramsey (
R) sequences, and the dependence of the decay function on
alpha and
f2. We investigate the case in which
SPhi(f0) is fixed at the ``pivot frequency''
f0neq1~Hz while
alpha is varied, and find that the choice of
f0 can greatly influence the sensitivity of
tauphi,E and
tauphi,R to the value of
alpha.Finally, we conclude with a brief review of our principal results and conclusions. We also comment on promising avenues of future research.
For many types of superconducting qubits, magnetic flux noise is a source of pure dephasing. Measurements on a representative dc superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) over a range of temperatures show that ${S}_{\ensuremath{\Phi}}(f)={A}^{2}/{(f/1\phantom{\rule{0.28em}{0ex}}\text{Hz})}^{\ensuremath{\alpha}}$, where ${S}_{\ensuremath{\Phi}}$ is the flux noise spectral density,
A is of the order of 1 $\ensuremath{\mu}{\ensuremath{\Phi}}_{0}\phantom{\rule{0.28em}{0ex}}{\text{Hz}}^{\ensuremath{-}1/2}$, $0.61\ensuremath{\leqslant}\ensuremath{\alpha}\ensuremath{\leqslant}0.95$, and ${\ensuremath{\Phi}}_{0}$ is the flux quantum. For a qubit with an energy level splitting linearly coupled to the applied flux, calculations of the dependence of the pure dephasing time ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi}}$ of Ramsey and echo pulse sequences on $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ for fixed
A show that ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi}}$ decreases rapidly as $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ is reduced. We find that ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi}}$ is relatively insensitive to the noise bandwidth, ${f}_{1}\ensuremath{\leqslant}f\ensuremath{\leqslant}{f}_{2}$, for all $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ provided the ultraviolet cutoff frequency ${f}_{2}>1/{\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi}}$. We calculate the ratio ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi},E}/{\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi},R}$ of the echo (
E) and Ramsey (
R) sequences and the dependence of the decay function on $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ and
f2. We investigate the case in which ${S}_{\ensuremath{\Phi}}({f}_{0})$ is fixed at the ``pivot frequency'' ${f}_{0}\ensuremath{\ne}1$ Hz while $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ is varied and find that the choice of
f0 can greatly influence the sensitivity of ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi},E}$ and ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi},R}$ to the value of $\ensuremath{\alpha}$. Finally, we present calculated values of ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{\ensuremath{\varphi}}$ in a qubit corresponding to the values of
A and $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ measured in our SQUID.
Flux noise is unanimously recognised as a leading dephasing mechanism for flux-tunable superconducting qubits. However, our microscopic understanding remains incomplete, and basic effects like Faraday's law of induction have only very recently come into focus. Based on a quantum geometric description of the Faraday effect, we provide an in-depth derivation of the coupling of generic magnetic sources to thin film superconducting structures, under appropriate consideration of the device geometry. We apply the resulting framework to time-varying magnetic dipoles, describing surface or substrate spins, as well as current-carrying flux lines. We show that flux noise not only affects dephasing, but also provides a fundamental limit for the qubit quality factor - notably, even when the qubit contains no loops and is thus nominally not flux-tunable. Assuming surface spins as the origin for universal flux noise, we expect that this quality factor limit might be reached in the near term. For flux lines, we formulate a minimal safety distance to conserve the qubit performance, potentially constraining the scale-up of quantum hardware. This distance is boosted in the presence of large capacitor wings typical for transmons, due to a lensing of the electromotive field which is largely independent of Meissner screening.
Magnetic flux noise is a dominant source of dephasing and energy relaxation in superconducting qubits. The noise power spectral density varies with frequency as 1/fα, with α1, and spans 13 orders of magnitude. Recent work indicates that the noise is from unpaired magnetic defects on the surfaces of the superconducting devices. Here, we demonstrate that adsorbed molecular O2 is the dominant contributor to magnetism in superconducting thin films. We show that this magnetism can be reduced by appropriate surface treatment or improvement in the sample vacuum environment. We observe a suppression of static spin susceptibility by more than an order of magnitude and a suppression of 1/f magnetic flux noise power spectral density of up to a factor of 5. These advances open the door to the realization of superconducting qubits with improved quantum coherence.