Matter-wave interferometry is a highly sensitive tool to measure small perturbations in a quantum system.This property allows the creation of precision sensors for dephasing mechanisms such as mechanical vibrations.They are a challenge for phase measurements under perturbing conditions that cannot be perfectly decoupled from the interferometer, e.g.for mobile interferometric devices or vibrations with a broad frequency range.Here, we demonstrate a method based on second-order correlation theory in combination with Fourier analysis, to use an electron interferometer as a sensor that precisely characterizes the mechanical vibration spectrum of the interferometer.Using the high spatial and temporal single-particle resolution of a delay line detector, the data allows to reveal the original contrast and spatial periodicity of the interference pattern from 'washed-out' matter-wave interferograms that have been vibrationally disturbed in the frequency region between 100 and 1000 Hz.Other than with electromagnetic dephasing, due to excitations of higher harmonics and additional frequencies induced from the environment, the parts in the setup oscillate with frequencies that can be different to the applied ones.The developed numerical search algorithm is capable to determine those unknown oscillations and corresponding amplitudes.The technique can identify vibrational dephasing and decrease damping and shielding requirements in electron, ion, neutron, atom and molecule interferometers that generate a spatial fringe pattern on the detector plane.
Matter-wave interferometry is a highly sensitive tool to measure small perturbations in a quantum system.This property allows the creation of precision sensors for dephasing mechanisms such as mechanical vibrations.They are a challenge for phase measurements under perturbing conditions that cannot be perfectly decoupled from the interferometer, e.g.for mobile interferometric devices or vibrations with a broad frequency range.Here, we demonstrate a method based on second-order correlation theory in combination with Fourier analysis, to use an electron interferometer as a sensor that precisely characterizes the mechanical vibration spectrum of the interferometer.Using the high spatial and temporal single-particle resolution of a delay line detector, the data allows to reveal the original contrast and spatial periodicity of the interference pattern from 'washed-out' matter-wave interferograms that have been vibrationally disturbed in the frequency region between 100 and 1000 Hz.Other than with electromagnetic dephasing, due to excitations of higher harmonics and additional frequencies induced from the environment, the parts in the setup oscillate with frequencies that can be different to the applied ones.The developed numerical search algorithm is capable to determine those unknown oscillations and corresponding amplitudes.The technique can identify vibrational dephasing and decrease damping and shielding requirements in electron, ion, neutron, atom and molecule interferometers that generate a spatial fringe pattern on the detector plane.
High-contrast matter-wave interferometry is essential in various fundamental quantum mechanical experiments as well as for technical applications. Thereby, contrast and sensitivity are typically reduced by decoherence and dephasing effects. While decoherence accounts for a general loss of quantum information in a system due to entanglement with the environment, dephasing is due to collective time-dependent external phase shifts, which can be related to temperature drifts, mechanical vibrations, and electromagnetic oscillations. In contrast to decoherence, dephasing can, in principle, be reversed. Here, we demonstrate in experiment and theory a method for the analysis and reduction of the influence of dephasing noise and perturbations consisting of several external frequencies in an electron interferometer. This technique uses the high spatial and temporal resolution of a delay-line detector to reveal and remove dephasing perturbations by second-order correlation analysis. It allows matter-wave experiments under perturbing laboratory conditions and can be applied, in principle, to electron, atom, ion, neutron, and molecule interferometers.
Interferometers with single particles are susceptible for dephasing perturbations from the environment, such as electromagnetic oscillations or mechanical vibrations.On the one hand, this limits sensitive quantum phase measurements as it reduces the interference contrast in the signal.On the other hand, it enables single-particle interferometers to be used as sensitive sensors for electromagnetic and mechanical perturbations.Recently, it was demonstrated experimentally, that a secondorder correlation analysis of the spatial and temporal detection signal can decrease the electromagnetic shielding and vibrational damping requirements significantly.Thereby, the relevant matter-wave characteristics and the perturbation parameters could be extracted from the correlation analysis of a spatially 'washed-out' interference pattern and the original undisturbed interferogram could be reconstructed.This method can be applied to all interferometers that produce a spatial fringe pattern on a detector with high spatial and temporal single-particle resolution.In this article, we present and discuss in detail the used two-dimensional second-order correlation theory for multifrequency perturbations.The derivations of an explicit and approximate solution of the correlation function and corresponding amplitude spectra are provided.It is explained, how the numerical correlation function is extracted from the measurement data.Thereby, the influence of the temporal and spatial discretization step size on the extracted parameters, as contrast and perturbation amplitude, is analyzed.The influence of noise on the correlation function and corresponding amplitude spectrum is calculated and numerically cross-checked by a comparison of our theory with numerical singleparticle simulations of a perturbed interference pattern.Thereby, an optimum spatial discretization step size is determined to achieve a maximum signal-to-noise ratio, which was used in former experiments to identify the perturbation caused by the electrical network.Our method can also be applied for the analysis of broad-band frequency noise, dephasing the interference pattern.Using Gaussian distributed noise in the simulations, we demonstrate that the relevant matter-wave parameters and the applied perturbation spectrum can be revealed by our correlation analysis.
Single-particle interferometers became a remarkable tool in many fields of fundamental research and technical applications, such as sensor technology. Due to their high phase sensitivity, these interferometers are susceptible to dephasing which originates typically from electromagnetic fields, mechanical vibrations or temperature drifts, leading to a reduced contrast in the spatial signal. In opposition to decoherence, where the contrast is reduced due to the entanglement of the quantum state to the environment, dephasing is a collective phase shift of the interference pattern. Therefore, it can in principle be reversed after the measurement if the spatial and temporal information about the particle events in the detection plane is available. Using two-particle correlations, it is possible to reveal the properties of the unperturbed interference pattern, such as contrast and spatial periodicity, and the dephasing characteristics. In this thesis, the second-order correlation analysis of multifrequency dephasing is discussed theoretically and demonstrated experimentally. The second-order correlation theory is derived and the equations are explained in detail. Additionally, the numerical correlation function used to extract the experimental data is provided and it is explained how the discretization influences the accuracy of the obtained parameters. Using an electron biprism interferometer, the validity of our correlation analysis is verified experimentally by applying artificially an external time-varying magnetic field dephasing the temporally integrated interference pattern. It is demonstrated successfully that the parameters of the unperturbed interference pattern can be revealed even if the contrast in the spatial signal is nearly vanished. Furthermore, the characteristics of single- and multifrequency dephasing can be identified and used for the reconstruction of the unperturbed interference pattern. The applicability of our correlation analysis is also investigated by applying external mechanical vibrations in a broad frequency range to the electron biprism interferometer. Here, the amplitude spectrum of the correlation function is used together with a numerical algorithm to identify the unknown dephasing frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. In this way, the vibrational response spectrum of the biprism interferometer including the mechanical resonances could be determined. Our correlation analysis can be applied in principle in all interferometers generating a spatial interference pattern on a detector with high spatial and temporal single-particle resolution. Such detectors are available for electrons, ions, atoms, neutrons, molecules, and photons which enables the application of our method in a wide range of interferometric experiments. In fundamental research, the second-order correlation analysis can be used to distinguish between dephasing and decoherence in experiments where the contrast of the interference pattern has to be determined. This is e.g. relevant for studying the mechanisms of decoherence and testing the limits of quantum mechanical superposition. Our method can also be a useful tool in technical applications to optimize the electromagnetic shielding and vibrational damping of the interferometer by measuring its response spectra. As the correlation analysis is suitable to identify unknown dephasing frequencies and the corresponding amplitudes, it can be applied in sensor technology. At the end of this thesis, a compact sensor for the measurement of time-varying electromagnetic fields based on an electron biprism interferometer is proposed. Due to the wide application possibilities of the described correlation analysis, it is of significant relevance in various fields of single-particle interferometry.
Remarkable progress can be observed in recent years in the controlled emission, guiding, and detection of coherent, free electrons. Those methods were applied in matter wave interferometers leading to high phase sensitivities and precise sensor technologies for dephasing influences such as mechanical vibrations or electromagnetic frequencies. However, the previous devices have been large laboratory setups. For future sensor applications or tests of the coherence properties of an electron source, small, portable interferometers are required. Here, we demonstrate a compact biprism electron interferometer that can be used for mobile applications. The design was optimized for small dimensions by beam path simulations. The interferometer has a length between the tip and the superposition plane before magnification of only 47 mm and provides electron interference patterns with a contrast up to 42.7%. The detection of two dephasing frequencies at 50 and 150 Hz was demonstrated applying second order correlation and Fourier analysis of the interference data.
Matter-wave interferometers utilizing different isotopes or chemical elements intrinsically have different sensitivities, and the analysis tools available until now are insufficient for accurately estimating the atomic phase difference under many experimental conditions. In this work, we describe and demonstrate two new methods for extracting the differential phase between dual-species atom interferometers for precise tests of the weak equivalence principle (WEP). The first method is a generalized Bayesian analysis, which uses knowledge of the system noise to estimate the differential phase based on a statistical model. The second method utilizes a mechanical accelerometer to reconstruct single-sensor interference fringes based on measurements of the vibration-induced phase. An improved ellipse-fitting algorithm is also implemented as a third method for comparison. These analysis tools are investigated using both numerical simulations and experimental data from simultaneous 87 Rb and 39 K interferometers, and both new techniques are shown to produce bias-free estimates of the differential phase. We also report observations of phase correlations between atom interferometers composed of different chemical species. This correlation enables us to reject common-mode vibration noise by a factor of 730, and to make preliminary tests of the WEP with a sensitivity of 1.6 × 10 − 6 per measurement with an interrogation time of T = 10 ms. We study the level of vibration rejection by varying the temporal overlap between interferometers in a symmetric timing sequence. Finally, we discuss the limitations of the new analysis methods for future applications of differential atom interferometry.
Matter-wave interferometry is a striking quantum phenomenon that differs fundamentally from classical mechanics. In the quantum regime, matter behaves like a wave and can exist in spatial superpositions, allowing a single quantum object to move along multiple trajectories simultaneously. Similar to optical interferometers, such quantum matter systems act as interferometers themselves, with the differential phase that encodes information about external forces experienced during their evolution. This makes matter-wave interferometry a powerful platform for quantum sensing across various applications: (i) One of the most direct applications is precision measurement. Atomic interferometers can measure local acceleration and have already been implemented in devices such as accelerometers, seismometers, gravimeters, and gradiometers. (ii) Atomic interferometers are proposed as complementary tools for future gravitational-wave observatories, including ongoing projects MIGA, MAGIS-100, AION and ZAIGA. (iii) Matter-wave interferometry also offers a promising platform for probing quantum aspects of gravity. Numerous tabletop proposals aim to test quantum gravity models, investigate collapse mechanisms, study gravity-induced decoherence, and search for gravity-mediated quantum entanglement. The Stern-Gerlach interferometer (SGI) is a type of matter-wave interferometer that manipulates spatial superpositions using magnetic-field gradients. The witness of an SGI can be designed via its spin, enabling more precise measurements of the differential phase. Recent developments in atomic chip technology have enabled the generation of highly controlled magnetic fields on compact platforms, allowing for precise manipulation of spin states and making SGIs experimentally realizable. Robustness is a critical challenge for matter-wave interferometers. In real experiments, various sources of classical noises arise from mechanical vibrations, seismic motions, inertial forces, tidal forces, magnetic field fluctuations and so on. These noises can disturb the spin and spatial degrees of freedom of the test mass, resulting in witness loss of the interferometer. While spin decoherence is relatively well understood and can be formulated by the Bloch-Redfield master equation, the impact on spatial degrees of freedom still requires systematic investigation. This thesis therefore aims to explore witness loss in an SGI induced by stochastic noises acting on spatial degrees of freedom. As investigated by this thesis, the witness gets lost via several mechanisms: (i) Dephasing. The spatial phase is fluctuated by stochastic noise, resulting in a random phase factor eiδϕ, whose ensemble average contributes a decay factor e−Γ to the spin density matrix and leads to a loss of witness. As is demonstrated by the thesis, this decay factor is a linear response to the external noise, with a transfer function as the Fourier transform of the unperturbed classical trajectories. (ii) Humpty-Dumpty problem. The classical trajectories are also disturbed by stochastic noise, resulting in a non-closure problem of the interferometer, known as the Humpty-Dumpty problem. The resulting witness loss is usually characterized by the contrast of the final states ⟨ψ1|ψ2⟩, which equals the phase-space distance |α1 − α2|2 when the test mass is in coherent states. (iii) Position localization decoherence. Due to the randomness of the noise, the spatial wavefunction of the test mass is thus also stochastic, of which the ensemble average experiences decoherence characterized by the power spectrum density of external noise. However, as illustrated by this thesis, this type of decoherence does not affect spin-based witnesses in most practical scenarios. The general theoretical framework is mainly constructed in chapter 3 of this thesis. The subsequent chapters analyze several representative noise sources: (i) Gravitational and electrostatic noise. Molecules in the surrounding gas move randomly due to thermal motion, generating stochastic gravitational accelerations and electrostatic forces that can be expanded in multipole series. Since the random motion follows Maxwell’s distribution and approximately has a cylindrical symmetry, the resulting noise power spectrum density takes the form of Bessel functions. (ii) Inertial acceleration noise. The mechanical support of the experimental apparatus is always fluctuated by vibrational noise, resulting in random inertial force on the test mass. In practice, dephasing can be mitigated through destructive interference by introducing appropriate coupling between different directional components. (iii) Inertial torsion noise. In suspended experiments, the experimental apparatus is fluctuated by torsional noise, leading to another inertial noise on the test mass. The power spectrum density of the inertial torsion noise is formulated by the selfconvolution of the original noise, resulting in the peak frequencies that are doubled. Taken together, these analyses build a comprehensive picture of how stochastic noise affects the spatial dynamics of an SGI and leads to the loss of spin-based witnesses. Future work may include more realistic noise sources such as magnetic noise and trap-potential noise. These insights will be valuable for future experimental implementations, particularly in precision sensing for quantum gravity, where preserving coherence and maintaining reliable witness signals are essential.