Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

arXiv:1602.08954

Completeness and the ZX-calculus

Miriam Backens

Published Feb 29, 2016• 13 citations
arXivHTMLPDF

Abstract

Graphical languages offer intuitive and rigorous formalisms for quantum physics. They can be used to simplify expressions, derive equalities, and do computations. Yet in order to replace conventional formalisms, rigour alone is not sufficient: the new formalisms also need to have equivalent deductive power. This requirement is captured by the property of completeness, which means that any equality that can be derived using some standard formalism can also be derived graphically. In this thesis, I consider the ZX-calculus, a graphical language for pure state qubit quantum mechanics. I show that it is complete for pure state stabilizer quantum mechanics, so any problem within this fragment of quantum theory can be fully analysed using graphical methods. This includes questions of central importance in areas such as error-correcting codes or measurement-based quantum computation. Furthermore, I show that the ZX-calculus is complete for the single-qubit Clifford+T group, which is approximately universal: any single-qubit unitary can be approximated to arbitrary accuracy using only Clifford gates and the T-gate. [...] Lastly, I extend the use of rigorous graphical languages outside quantum theory to Spekkens' toy theory, a local hidden variable model that nevertheless exhibits some features commonly associated with quantum mechanics. [...] I develop a graphical calculus similar to the ZX-calculus that fully describes Spekkens' toy theory, and show that it is complete. Hence, stabilizer quantum mechanics and Spekkens' toy theory can be fully analysed and compared using graphical formalisms. Intuitive graphical languages can replace conventional formalisms for the analysis of many questions in quantum computation and foundations without loss of mathematical rigour or deductive power.

DOI
10.48550/arxiv.1602.08954

Related papers

Completeness and the -calculus

Miriam Backens

Graphical languages offer intuitive and rigorous formalisms for quantum physics. They can be used to simplify expressions, derive equalities, and do computations. Yet in order to replace conventional formalisms, rigour alone is not sufficient: the new formalisms also need to have equivalent deductive power. This requirement is captured by the property of completeness, which means that any equality that can be derived using some standard formalism can also be derived graphically. In this thesis, I consider the ZX-calculus, a graphical language for pure state qubit quantum mechanics. I show that it is complete for pure state stabilizer quantum mechanics, so any problem within this fragment of quantum theory can be fully analysed using graphical methods. This includes questions of central importance in areas such as error-correcting codes or measurement-based quantum computation. Furthermore, I show that the ZX-calculus is complete for the single-qubit Clifford+T group, which is approximately universal: any single-qubit unitary can be approximated to arbitrary accuracy using only Clifford gates and the T-gate. [...] Lastly, I extend the use of rigorous graphical languages outside quantum theory to Spekkens' toy theory, a local hidden variable model that nevertheless exhibits some features commonly associated with quantum mechanics. [...] I develop a graphical calculus similar to the ZX-calculus that fully describes Spekkens' toy theory, and show that it is complete. Hence, stabilizer quantum mechanics and Spekkens' toy theory can be fully analysed and compared using graphical formalisms. Intuitive graphical languages can replace conventional formalisms for the analysis of many questions in quantum computation and foundations without loss of mathematical rigour or deductive power.

•Jan 1, 2016•0 citations

The ZX-calculus is complete for the single-qubit Clifford+T group

Miriam Backens

The ZX-calculus is a graphical calculus for reasoning about pure state qubit quantum mechanics. It is complete for pure qubit stabilizer quantum mechanics, meaning any equality involving only stabilizer operations that can be derived using matrices can also be derived pictorially. Stabilizer operations include the unitary Clifford group, as well as preparation of qubits in the state |0>, and measurements in the computational basis. For general pure state qubit quantum mechanics, the ZX-calculus is incomplete: there exist equalities involving non-stabilizer unitary operations on single qubits which cannot be derived from the current rule set for the ZX-calculus. Here, we show that the ZX-calculus for single qubits remains complete upon adding the operator T to the single-qubit stabilizer operations. This is particularly interesting as the resulting single-qubit Clifford+T group is approximately universal, i.e. any unitary single-qubit operator can be approximated to arbitrary accuracy using only Clifford operators and T.

arXiv:1412.8553•Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science•Dec 27, 2014•40 citations

The ZX-calculus is complete for stabilizer quantum mechanics

Miriam Backens

The ZX-calculus is a graphical calculus for reasoning about quantum systems and processes. It is known to be universal for pure state qubit quantum mechanics (QM), meaning any pure state, unitary operation and post-selected pure projective measurement can be expressed in the ZX-calculus. The calculus is also sound , i.e. any equality that can be derived graphically can also be derived using matrix mechanics. Here, we show that the ZX-calculus is complete for pure qubit stabilizer QM, meaning any equality that can be derived using matrices can also be derived pictorially. The proof relies on bringing diagrams into a normal form based on graph states and local Clifford operations.

arXiv:1307.7025•New Journal of Physics•Sep 17, 2014•122 citations

Completeness of the ZX-Calculus

Emmanuel Jeandel, Simon Perdrix, Renaud Vilmart

The ZX-Calculus is a graphical language for diagrammatic reasoning in quantum mechanics and quantum information theory. It comes equipped with an equational presentation. We focus here on a very important property of the language: completeness, which roughly ensures the equational theory captures all of quantum mechanics. We first improve on the known-to-be-complete presentation for the so-called Clifford fragment of the language - a restriction that is not universal - by adding some axioms. Thanks to a system of back-and-forth translation between the ZX-Calculus and a third-party complete graphical language, we prove that the provided axiomatisation is complete for the first approximately universal fragment of the language, namely Clifford+T. We then prove that the expressive power of this presentation, though aimed at achieving completeness for the aforementioned restriction, extends beyond Clifford+T, to a class of diagrams that we call linear with Clifford+T constants. We use another version of the third-party language - and an adapted system of back-and-forth translation - to complete the language for the ZX-Calculus as a whole, that is, with no restriction. We briefly discuss the added axioms, and finally, we provide a complete axiomatisation for an altered version of the language which involves an additional generator, making the presentation simpler.

arXiv:1903.06035•Logical Methods in Computer Science•Jun 4, 2020•18 citations

The ZX Calculus is incomplete for Clifford+T quantum mechanics

Simon Perdrix, Quanlong Wang

The ZX calculus is a diagrammatic language for quantum mechanics and quantum information processing. We prove that the ZX-calculus is not complete for Clifford+T quantum mechanics. The completeness for this fragment has been stated as one of the main current open problems in categorical quantum mechanics. The ZX calculus was known to be incomplete for quantum mechanics, on the other hand, it has been proved complete for Clifford quantum mechanics (a.k.a. stabilizer quantum mechanics), and for single-qubit Clifford+T quantum mechanics. The question of the completeness of the ZX calculus for Clifford+T quantum mechanics is a crucial step in the development of the ZX calculus because of its (approximate) universality for quantum mechanics (i.e. any unitary evolution can be approximated using Clifford and T gates only). We exhibit a property which is know to be true in Clifford+T quantum mechanics and prove that this equation cannot be derived in the ZX calculus by introducing a new sound interpretation of the ZX calculus in which this particular property does not hold. Finally, we propose to extend the language with a new axiom.

•Jun 8, 2015•2 citations

Making the stabilizer ZX-calculus complete for scalars

Miriam Backens

The ZX-calculus is a graphical language for quantum processes with built-in rewrite rules. The rewrite rules allow equalities to be derived entirely graphically, leading to the question of completeness: can any equality that is derivable using matrices also be derived graphically? The ZX-calculus is known to be complete for scalar-free pure qubit stabilizer quantum mechanics, meaning any equality between two pure stabilizer operators that is true up to a non-zero scalar factor can be derived using the graphical rewrite rules. Here, we replace those scalar-free rewrite rules with correctly scaled ones and show that, by adding one new diagram element and a new rewrite rule, the calculus can be made complete for pure qubit stabilizer quantum mechanics with scalars. This completeness property allows amplitudes and probabilities to be calculated entirely graphically. We also explicitly consider stabilizer zero diagrams, i.e. diagrams that represent a zero matrix, and show that two new rewrite rules suffice to make the calculus complete for those.

arXiv:1507.03854•Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science•Nov 4, 2015•35 citations
Graphical languages offer intuitive and rigorous formalisms for quantum physics. They can be used to simplify expressions, derive equalities, and do computations. Yet in order to replace conventional formalisms, rigour alone is not sufficient: the new formalisms also need to have equivalent deductive power. This requirement is captured by the property of completeness, which means that any equality that can be derived using some standard formalism can also be derived graphically. In this thesis, I consider the ZX-calculus, a graphical language for pure state qubit quantum mechanics. I show that it is complete for pure state stabilizer quantum mechanics, so any problem within this fragment of quantum theory can be fully analysed using graphical methods. This includes questions of central importance in areas such as error-correcting codes or measurement-based quantum computation. Furthermore, I show that the ZX-calculus is complete for the single-qubit Clifford+T group, which is approximately universal: any single-qubit unitary can be approximated to arbitrary accuracy using only Clifford gates and the T-gate. [...] Lastly, I extend the use of rigorous graphical languages outside quantum theory to Spekkens' toy theory, a local hidden variable model that nevertheless exhibits some features commonly associated with quantum mechanics. [...] I develop a graphical calculus similar to the ZX-calculus that fully describes Spekkens' toy theory, and show that it is complete. Hence, stabilizer quantum mechanics and Spekkens' toy theory can be fully analysed and compared using graphical formalisms. Intuitive graphical languages can replace conventional formalisms for the analysis of many questions in quantum computation and foundations without loss of mathematical rigour or deductive power.
Graphical languages offer intuitive and rigorous formalisms for quantum physics. They can be used to simplify expressions, derive equalities, and do computations. Yet in order to replace conventional formalisms, rigour alone is not sufficient: the new formalisms also need to have equivalent deductive power. This requirement is captured by the property of completeness, which means that any equality that can be derived using some standard formalism can also be derived graphically. In this thesis, I consider the ZX-calculus, a graphical language for pure state qubit quantum mechanics. I show that it is complete for pure state stabilizer quantum mechanics, so any problem within this fragment of quantum theory can be fully analysed using graphical methods. This includes questions of central importance in areas such as error-correcting codes or measurement-based quantum computation. Furthermore, I show that the ZX-calculus is complete for the single-qubit Clifford+T group, which is approximately universal: any single-qubit unitary can be approximated to arbitrary accuracy using only Clifford gates and the T-gate. [...] Lastly, I extend the use of rigorous graphical languages outside quantum theory to Spekkens' toy theory, a local hidden variable model that nevertheless exhibits some features commonly associated with quantum mechanics. [...] I develop a graphical calculus similar to the ZX-calculus that fully describes Spekkens' toy theory, and show that it is complete. Hence, stabilizer quantum mechanics and Spekkens' toy theory can be fully analysed and compared using graphical formalisms. Intuitive graphical languages can replace conventional formalisms for the analysis of many questions in quantum computation and foundations without loss of mathematical rigour or deductive power.
The ZX-calculus is a graphical calculus for reasoning about pure state qubit quantum mechanics. It is complete for pure qubit stabilizer quantum mechanics, meaning any equality involving only stabilizer operations that can be derived using matrices can also be derived pictorially. Stabilizer operations include the unitary Clifford group, as well as preparation of qubits in the state |0>, and measurements in the computational basis. For general pure state qubit quantum mechanics, the ZX-calculus is incomplete: there exist equalities involving non-stabilizer unitary operations on single qubits which cannot be derived from the current rule set for the ZX-calculus. Here, we show that the ZX-calculus for single qubits remains complete upon adding the operator T to the single-qubit stabilizer operations. This is particularly interesting as the resulting single-qubit Clifford+T group is approximately universal, i.e. any unitary single-qubit operator can be approximated to arbitrary accuracy using only Clifford operators and T.
The ZX-calculus is a graphical calculus for reasoning about quantum systems and processes. It is known to be universal for pure state qubit quantum mechanics (QM), meaning any pure state, unitary operation and post-selected pure projective measurement can be expressed in the ZX-calculus. The calculus is also sound , i.e. any equality that can be derived graphically can also be derived using matrix mechanics. Here, we show that the ZX-calculus is complete for pure qubit stabilizer QM, meaning any equality that can be derived using matrices can also be derived pictorially. The proof relies on bringing diagrams into a normal form based on graph states and local Clifford operations.
The ZX-Calculus is a graphical language for diagrammatic reasoning in quantum mechanics and quantum information theory. It comes equipped with an equational presentation. We focus here on a very important property of the language: completeness, which roughly ensures the equational theory captures all of quantum mechanics. We first improve on the known-to-be-complete presentation for the so-called Clifford fragment of the language - a restriction that is not universal - by adding some axioms. Thanks to a system of back-and-forth translation between the ZX-Calculus and a third-party complete graphical language, we prove that the provided axiomatisation is complete for the first approximately universal fragment of the language, namely Clifford+T. We then prove that the expressive power of this presentation, though aimed at achieving completeness for the aforementioned restriction, extends beyond Clifford+T, to a class of diagrams that we call linear with Clifford+T constants. We use another version of the third-party language - and an adapted system of back-and-forth translation - to complete the language for the ZX-Calculus as a whole, that is, with no restriction. We briefly discuss the added axioms, and finally, we provide a complete axiomatisation for an altered version of the language which involves an additional generator, making the presentation simpler.
The ZX calculus is a diagrammatic language for quantum mechanics and quantum information processing. We prove that the ZX-calculus is not complete for Clifford+T quantum mechanics. The completeness for this fragment has been stated as one of the main current open problems in categorical quantum mechanics. The ZX calculus was known to be incomplete for quantum mechanics, on the other hand, it has been proved complete for Clifford quantum mechanics (a.k.a. stabilizer quantum mechanics), and for single-qubit Clifford+T quantum mechanics. The question of the completeness of the ZX calculus for Clifford+T quantum mechanics is a crucial step in the development of the ZX calculus because of its (approximate) universality for quantum mechanics (i.e. any unitary evolution can be approximated using Clifford and T gates only). We exhibit a property which is know to be true in Clifford+T quantum mechanics and prove that this equation cannot be derived in the ZX calculus by introducing a new sound interpretation of the ZX calculus in which this particular property does not hold. Finally, we propose to extend the language with a new axiom.
The ZX-calculus is a graphical language for quantum processes with built-in rewrite rules. The rewrite rules allow equalities to be derived entirely graphically, leading to the question of completeness: can any equality that is derivable using matrices also be derived graphically? The ZX-calculus is known to be complete for scalar-free pure qubit stabilizer quantum mechanics, meaning any equality between two pure stabilizer operators that is true up to a non-zero scalar factor can be derived using the graphical rewrite rules. Here, we replace those scalar-free rewrite rules with correctly scaled ones and show that, by adding one new diagram element and a new rewrite rule, the calculus can be made complete for pure qubit stabilizer quantum mechanics with scalars. This completeness property allows amplitudes and probabilities to be calculated entirely graphically. We also explicitly consider stabilizer zero diagrams, i.e. diagrams that represent a zero matrix, and show that two new rewrite rules suffice to make the calculus complete for those.