The process approach to NRQM offers a fourth framework for the quantization of physical systems. Unlike the standard approaches (Schrodinger-Heisenberg, Feynman, Wigner-Gronewald-Moyal), the process approach is not merely equivalent to NRQM and is not merely a re-interpretation. The process approach provides a dynamical completion of NRQM. Standard NRQM arises as a asymptotic quotient by means of a set-valued process covering map, which links the process algebra to the usual space of wave functions and operators on Hilbert space. The process approach offers an emergentist, discrete, finite, quasi-non-local and quasi-non-contextual realist interpretation which appears to resolve many of the paradoxes and is free of divergences. Nevertheless, it retains the computational power of NRQM and possesses an emergent probability structure which agrees with NRQM in the asymptotic quotient. The paper describes the process algebra, the process covering map for single systems and the configuration process covering map for multiple systems. It demonstrates the link to NRQM through a toy model. Applications of the process algebra to various quantum mechanical situations - superpositions, two-slit experiments, entanglement, Schrodinger's cat - are presented along with an approach to the paradoxes and the issue of classicality.
The process approach to NRQM offers a fourth framework for the quantization of physical systems. Unlike the standard approaches (Schrodinger-Heisenberg, Feynman, Wigner-Gronewald-Moyal), the process approach is not merely equivalent to NRQM and is not merely a re-interpretation. The process approach provides a dynamical completion of NRQM. Standard NRQM arises as a asymptotic quotient by means of a set-valued process covering map, which links the process algebra to the usual space of wave functions and operators on Hilbert space. The process approach offers an emergentist, discrete, finite, quasi-non-local and quasi-non-contextual realist interpretation which appears to resolve many of the paradoxes and is free of divergences. Nevertheless, it retains the computational power of NRQM and possesses an emergent probability structure which agrees with NRQM in the asymptotic quotient. The paper describes the process algebra, the process covering map for single systems and the configuration process covering map for multiple systems. It demonstrates the link to NRQM through a toy model. Applications of the process algebra to various quantum mechanical situations - superpositions, two-slit experiments, entanglement, Schrodinger's cat - are presented along with an approach to the paradoxes and the issue of classicality.
The process algebra model has been suggested as an alternative mathematical framework for non-relativistic quantum mechanics (NRQM). It appears to reproduce the wave functions of non-relativistic quantum mechanics to a high degree of accuracy. It posits a fundamental level of finite, discrete events upon which the usual entities of NRQM supervene. It has been suggested that the process algebra model provides a true completion of NRQM, free of divergences and paradoxes, with causally local information propagation, contextuality, and realism. Arguments in support of these claims have been mathematical. Missing has been an ontology of this fundamental level from which the formalism naturally emerges. In this paper, it is argued that information and information flow provides this ontology. Higher level constructs such as energy, momentum, mass, spacetime, are all emergent from this fundamental level.
The process algebra has been used successfully to provide a novel formulation of quantum mechanics in which non-relativistic quantum mechanics (NRQM) emerges as an effective theory asymptotically. The process algebra is applied here to the formulation of quantum field theory. The resulting QFT is intuitive, free from divergences and eliminates the distinction between particle, field and wave. There is a finite, discrete emergent space-time on which arise emergent entities which transfer information like discrete waves and interact with measurement processes like particles. The need for second quantization is eliminated and the particle and field theories rest on a common foundation, clarifying and simplifying the relationship between the two.
A process model of quantum mechanics utilizes a combinatorial game to generate a discrete and finite causal space upon which can be defined a self-consistent quantum mechanics. An emergent space-time and continuous wave function arise through a uniform interpolation process. Standard non-relativistic quantum mechanics (at least for integer spin particles) emerges under the limit of infinite information (the causal space grows to infinity) and infinitesimal scale (the separation between points goes to zero). This model is quasi-local, discontinuous, and quasi-non-contextual. The bridge between process and wave function is through the process covering map, which reveals that the standard wave function formalism lacks important dynamical information related to the generation of the causal space. Reformulating several classical conundrums such as wave particle duality, Schrodinger's cat, hidden variable results, the model offers potential resolutions to all, while retaining a high degree of locality and contextuality at the local level, yet nonlocality and contextuality at the emergent level. The model remains computationally powerful.
The process algebra approach to quantum mechanics posits a finite, discrete, determinate ontology of primitive events which are generated by processes (in the sense of Whitehead). In this ontology, primitive events serve as elements of an emergent space-time and of emergent fundamental particles and fields. Each process generates a set of primitive elements, using only local information, causally propagated as a discrete wave, forming a causal space termed a causal tapestry. Each causal tapestry forms a discrete and finite sampling of an emergent causal manifold (space-time) M and emergent wave function. Interactions between processes are described by a process algebra which possesses 8 commutative operations (sums and products) together with a non-commutative concatenation operator (transitions). The process algebra possesses a representation via nondeterministic combinatorial games. The process algebra connects to quantum mechanics through the set valued process and configuration space covering maps, which associate each causal tapestry with sets of wave functions over M . Probabilities emerge from interactions between processes. The process algebra model has been shown to reproduce many features of the theory of non-relativistic scalar particles to a high degree of accuracy, without paradox or divergences. This paper extends the approach to a semi-classical form of quantum electrodynamics.
The historical debate surrounding the necessity of complex numbers in quantum mechanics has been revitalized by recent experimental falsifications of standard real-amplitude models. However, Barrios Hita et al. (2026) demonstrated that a physically consistent real-number quantum theory can be constructed by mapping complex Hilbert spaces onto real quotient Hilbert spaces with local flags. In this work, we extensively expand this framework to full quantum field theory and numerous applications. We present explicit, index-level, and operator-level derivations of non-relativistic dynamics (the Schr¨odinger equation, Ehrenfest’s theorem, uncertainty principle), relativistic quantum mechanics (Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations), and quantum field theory (canonical quantization, Fock space, propagators, path integrals). We further apply the real formulation to harmonic oscillators, spin systems, perturbation theory, scattering theory, quantum entanglement, gauge theories and Quantum computing. We show that U(1) gauge transformations are rigorously isomorphic to SO(2) rotations in the real flag space, and that all physical predictions—including Bell violations and scattering amplitudes—are exactly reproduced. All derivations are presented at the explicit index level with full algebraic details, using a symplectic structure J that replaces the complex unit i.
Theories on physics areas may be understood as models of real world phenomena. They explain a large part of the reality, but they usually do not achieve to explain all details and all aspects of the subject. The type of model chosen for the formulation of a theory determines largely the kind of questions which can be answered by the theory. As an example, the inability to provide a satisfactory answer to the Quantum Theory (QT) measurement problem (or the denial of the problem) is claimed to be largely a consequence of the fact that the present standard model of QT does not support the terms and concepts required for a proper formulation of the problem. This paper describes a process model for QT with emphasis on Quantum Field Theory (QFT). A process model describes how things work. Usually this implies the chronological order in which things happen. With quantum theory there are many questions which cannot be answered by the present theory or its model. It is claimed that a process model of QT is (a) not yet available, and (b) a prerequisite for solutions to certain open problems of QT, such as the measurement problem. The model is based on QFT with the perturbation (Feynman) approach. Key features of the proposed process model are (1) discrete representation of the QT observables (momentum, position, spin) and of the paths resulting from an interaction (2) particle/wave fluctuations taking the role of virtual particles (3) transition from probabilities to facts which is not tied to measurements (4) path collections in support of entanglement. In contrast to the standard theory of QT/QFT, process models are hard to describe in terms of the purely axiomatic mathematics and hard to evaluate by only derivations of mathematical formulas. In order to enable an evaluation of the proposed process model, including showing compatibility with the predictions of standard QFT, a computer program has been implemented which supports both, standard QFT and the proposed process model.